Christianity

Origins

The first official mentioning of Yahweh is dated to the realm of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 b.C.) and says: “YHWA (in) the Land of the Shasu”. The Shasu were nomads of the Negev desert, Sinai, and northern Arabia, first known in the area from the 15th b.C. century. They would resist for a few centuries till being obliterated by the Sea Peoples.

In the Bible there are a few mention of Yahweh being associated with Edom or Sinai desert (Edom being located in the Negev desert). See Book of Judges 5:4-5, 20.

It is possible that Yahweh is the same God as Qos, the national God of the Edomites, and associated with Quzah, “the archer”, of the north Arabian pantheon.

The cult of Yahweh, however it originated and however it came to the kingdom of Israel and Judah, was accompanied by other deities till the times of prophet Elijah (9th century b.C.). Monolatrism, considering one God the only one worth worshipping but not denying the existence of others, of Yahweh seems well established only around the times of prophet Hosea (8th century b.C.).

Pure monotheism, complete denial of the existence of any God but for Yahweh, is attested only after the Babylonian exile. Yahweh is considered the creator God only in the Book of Isaiah (6th century b.C.).

Apocryphal books

Book of Jubilees

  • Book of Jubilees = only canon for the Ethiopian Church and the Ethiopian Jews. Condemned from the fourth century onward but before largely commented by Church Fathers. It is a rewriting of the Genesis and Exodus but with more details.
    • Specifically narrates of the genesis of angels and how they gave birth to the Nephilims from human women. Angels come from Seth and the women from Cain.
    • The Nephilims then generate the Elioud.
    • Names 2 sisters of Seth and Cain, Awan and Azura.
    • Cites hebrew as God’s language and the only one spoke in the original Garden, before Adam and Eve were cast out

Book of Enoch

  • Book of Enoch = dated around 300-200 b.C. till, the newer parts, 100 b.C., it is canon only for the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches.
    • It only exists today in its ethiopian translation
    • Initially considered canon by Church’s Fathers like Athegonaras, Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus and Tertullian but then rejected as such in the fourth century a.C.
    • Most of the book narrates the history of Enoch, his travels to heaven and his dreams.
    • In the text also parables, an astronomical treaty (supposedly revealed to Enoch by God), a vision on Israel’s history and a series of letters.
    • Integral text
      • the angels, led by Samyaza, take as spouses human women and generate the Nephilims.
      • one of the angel, Azazel, teaches many knowledges to humanity.
      • God imprison all the angels that descended to Earth by other angels.

Apocryphal Gospels

Generally the canonical Gospels started to be considered so only in the second half of the second century a.C.

Only around 190 a.C. the word “New Testament” is first used, distinct from the Old. Before that date, the various Gospels, apocryphals or not were considered text more or less truthful, but not of divine inspiration, and the Old Testament was considered the only sacred text.

Gospel of James

  • Gospel of James = perhaps autobiographical, it is attributed to a son of Saint Joseph from a previous wife.
    • dated between 150 and 200 a.C. (first mentioned in the third century by Origen of Alexandria).
    • asserts the virginity of Mary before and after the birth of Jesus.
    • first mention of the nativity happening in a cave.
    • explicitly asserts that Saint Joseph had several children, being a widower.
    • claims the old age of Saint Joseph at the birth of Jesus.
    • tells the infancy of Mary in a temple, also confirmed in the Qu’ran.

Infancy Gospel of Thomas

  • Infancy Gospel of Thomas = not canonical for any Church today, it is thought to be Gnostic in origin. Rejected as heretical since the beginning of Christianity, it contains many miracles and stories about Jesus that are accepted as true in the Qu’ran.
    • not of Saint Thomas.
    • first cited by Irenaeus around 185 a.C. The earliest possible autorship date is 80 a.C. but is generally agreed upon on a mid second century date.
    • the text tells of many childish miracles of Jesus, even tricks, some of which are confirmed by the Qu’ran.
    • Jesus is depicted as a rebel child, unheedful of the advice of his parents
    • 2 children and their teacher die due to a curse of Jesus

Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew

  • Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew = originally considered written by Saint Matthew himself but not anymore. Focuses on the infancy of Jesus and Mary.
    • a late text, from around 600-625 a.C.
    • influencial in the Middle Age pictorial of Nativity, first mention of the ox and donkey at the birth of Jesus.

Gospel of the Ebionites

  • Gospel of the Ebionites = surviving only in fragments, it is an apocryphal Gospel of Jewish-Christian origin.
    • dated around the middle of second century a.C.
    • mostly quoted by Epiphanius, the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus.
    • important teological take is the assertion that the Holy Ghost enters Jesus as a dove at the moment of his baptism. Only from there he’s considered the son of God.

Gospel of the Hebrews

  • Gospel of the Hebrews = another Jewish-Christian Gospel, perhaps composed in Greek by the local commmunity in Egypt. Only citations from the Church Fathers of it exist today.
    • considered canonical until the New Testament canon was formed in fourth century a.C.
    • dated around the second century a.C.
    • narrates many events of the early life of Jesus, until its baptism and death.
    • the Holy Ghost is the “Divine Mother” of Jesus, feminine, following an ancient jewish tradition.
    • James the Just, the stepbrother of Jesus, is the head of the Jerusalem Church and present at the Last Supper.
    • other stepbrothers of Jesus are cited as among his followers.

Gospel of the Nazarenes

  • Gospel of the Nazarenes = last of the Jewish-Christian Gospels, along with the Hebrews and Ebionites it is perhaps a single text.
    • dated before 200 a.C. but the full text doesn’t exist anymore. Its existence was inferred by citations of Church Fathers.
    • written in hebrew.
    • it is considered one of the sources of the canonical Gospel of Matthew.

Gospel of Marcion

  • Gospel of Marcion = written by Marcion of Sinope as a relaboration of various Gospels, mostly as an edited version of the Gospel of Luke.
    • around 2nd century a.C.
    • declared eretical on 144 a.C.
    • only a few fragments remain.
    • an hypothesis is that Marcion’s Gospel predates Luke and is thus the very first Gospel.
    • Jesus didn’t follow the tradition of the prophets.
    • the Earth is considered evil.

Gospel of Mani

  • Gospel of Mani = also known as the living Gospel, is a Gnostic Gospel written by Mani.
    • a few fragments remain of the original 22 parts.
    • thought as a Gnostic Gospel that should have replaced all the other Gospels.
    • the Manicheans adopted it as the only true Gospel.

Gospel of Peter

  • Gospel of Peter = of an unknown author but assumed to be Peter the apostle and the Gospel itself claims so.
    • around second century a.C.
    • declared heretical at the councils of Carthage and Rome, when the canonical New Testament was formed. Mostly accused of being docetic.
    • possibly not influenced by any of the other 4 canonical Gospels.
    • the nearly complete text was found in 1886 in Egypt.
    • in it, Pontius Pilate is lifted from any blame: only Herod and the Jews are culpable for the death of Jesus.
    • Jesus had not a physical body and thus possessed a pure spirit. It follows that he couldn’t die and neither resurrect.
    • Jesus is brought to the sky along with the cross, which is a talking cross.
    • Angels of gargantuan size are present at the crucifixion.
    • Jesus travels to Hell.

Gospel of Nicodemus

  • Gospel of Nicodemus = also known as the Acts of Pilate, is a Gospel derived from an original Hebrew work written by Nicodemus, an associate of Jesus.
    • dated around the fourth century a.C.
    • the section talking about Pilate is an original greek text that narrates the supposedly official report that Pilate did to emperor Claudius of the events surrounding the crucifixion of Jesus.
    • Jesus travels to Hell.
    • it is hinted of a conversion or repentance of Pilate.

Questions of Bartholomew

  • Questions of Bartholomew = a late Gospel in a similar style to the Apocalypse of St. John. It is framed as a discussion between Jesus and the apostles, spurred by many questions of Bartholomew.
    • could be the same text as the Gospel of Bartholomew.
    • copies in greek, latin and old slavonic still existing.
    • Integral text.
    • there is a sort of testimony of Satan about his rebellion.
    • A son of Satan, Salpsan, is named in the greek version.
    • Jesus narrates his travel to Hell and angels open the Earth to let the apostles see it themselves.
    • Salpsan is compared to Cain in accounts where this is sired by a fallen angel, Samael, that had been seduced by Eve.

Apocryphon of James

  • Apocryphon of James = also known as the Secret Book of James, it mainly tells of the teachings given by Jesus to James and Peter after the resurrection.
    • probably written in the first half of the second century a.C.
    • it shows affinities with Gnosticism but has not clearly attributed to any Gnostic sects.
    • Integral text.
    • the text is framed as a letter written by James to an unknown destinatary.
    • only Peter and James are given these additional teachings from Jesus and only James comprehend them in full.
    • both Peter and James are invited in Heaven by Jesus but neither understand the invite, as they are distracted by the questions of the other apostles.
    • it is hinted that James is the heir of Jesus as the head of the apostles.

Book of Thomas the Contender

  • Book of Thomas the Contender = simply known also as the Book of Thomas.
    • a scribe named Matthias is the one who actually writes the text. It is thought from this then that it may be the lost Gospel of Matthias.
    • quite metaphoric in tone, and similar to many gnostic texts.
    • it is stressed the importance of fighting evil with good.
    • important is also trying to overcome ego lusts and attachments.

Dialogue of the Savior

  • Dialogue of the Savior = another Gnostic text, heavily damaged.
    • largely edited and confusing, with sections apparently not connectd with the main text.
    • the final version may have been redacted around 150 a.C.
    • Thomas, Mary and Matthew are shown Hell from the border of the Earth and an angel explains them that the Earth itself was not a willingly create world and inherently evil.
    • controlling carnal desires is important (literrally called “the works of femininity”)
    • it is partly a dialogue with Jesus, which abruptly mid-text is stopped being called Lord and is instead addressed as Savior.

Gospel of Judas

  • Gospel of Judas = a Gnostic Gospel, probably composed by Gnostic christians rather than Judas himself.
    • dated to second century a.C. due to the only existing copy found in Egypt was carbon dated to 280 ± 60 years.
    • it is thought that it was written in Coptic from an original Greek text.
    • around a third of the text is currently illegible.
    • Judas is seen as a positive figure instead of a negative one, and the only apostle that understood Jesus’ teachings in full.
    • many heretical claims are made throughout the text, which is often in stark contrast to contemporary canonical an apocryphal Gospels.
    • God is described as a “luminous cloud of light”, living in an imperishable realm.
    • Adamas was created as the father of all humanity, and lives along God in the same realm.
    • 12 original angels were created and in turn they made a physical body for Adamas, the one known therefore as Adam.
    • humanity forgot the existence of Adamas and that imperishable realm, thinking that Earth is the only realm that exists.
    • lesser gods were also created in the beginning, along with the angels.
    • Jesus was the true son of God, not one of these lesser gods.
    • embracing the internal God in all humanity is the way to salvation.
    • the other Apostles did not understand the spiritual teachings of Jesus and were instead obsessed with the material realm. They spread the cult of lesser gods, practicing wrong acts like animal sacrifice and martyrdom.
    • humanity is split into two big groups: those with a soul, that after death will be reconciled with the true God and live forever, and those without, that will die, body and spirit, once and for all.
    • the communion is compared to cannibalism.
    • the death of Jesus had nothing to do with saving humanity but it was a simple method to return to God.
    • sacrifices are never coming from the true God, who is fully benevolent, but by the lesser ones.
    • Judas is the favorite apostle and not at all a traitor. His function was known to Jesus and in accord with his wishes.
    • Judas doesn’t die by hanging himself but is lapidated by the other apostles, thinking him a villain.
    • Full text as translated by the National Geographic.

Gospel of Mary

  • Gospel of Mary = not considered an actual Gospel but a general text of the early Christianity.
    • from an original text written in Greek around the second century a.C.
    • it was suggested it may have been actually written during the time of Christ.
    • it was found in Egypt in 1896.
    • it is uncertain whether the name Mary is referred to the mother of Jesus, Mary Magdalene or one of Jesus’ own sisters (named Mary in the Gospel of Philip).
    • the remaining parts contain discourses between Mary and the apostles.
    • the self of each human being is composed of a soul, a spirit/mind and a third mind.
    • not all the apostles are convinced by the revelations that Mary does to them. Peter is offended that Mary was chosen as the favorite by Jesus instead of him.

Gospel of Philip

  • Gospel of Philip = another Gnostic Gospel, it was lost during medieval times until it was rediscovered in Nag Hammadi, Egypt, in 1945.
    • dated to around the third century a.C. or between 180 and 300 a.C.
    • probably not written by Philip the apostle, as he died in 80 a.C., but the text doesn’t claim to be either.
    • a large part of the content is about sacraments.
    • a big part of the text is about the relationship between Mary Magdalene and Jesus, and their close relationship. Mary Magdalene is multiple times called Jesus’ companion, partner or consort.
    • marriage is called a sacred mystery.
    • a sister of Jesus is named, as confirmed by the canonical Gospel of Mark (6:3). It is unclear whether it is an actual sister of Jesus or a sister of his mother, thus an aunt of Jesus
    • it is narrated of a kiss between Jesus and Mary Magdalene, again, in uncertain form, and how Mary Magdalene had a privileged spot among the apostles and how this caused some resentment.

Greek Gospel of the Egyptians

  • Greek Gospel of the Egyptians = not to be confused with the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians, is a gospel whose name cames from its opening line.
    • dated around the second quarter of the second century a.C.
    • only fragments remain today.
    • it was canonical in Egypt between the second and the third century a.C.
    • it is written in form of dialogues between the disciple Salome and Jesus.
    • Jesus advocates celibacy, or actual sexual ascetism, as a way to break the cycle of birth and overcoming the alleged sinful differences between men and women, coming back to an androginous state that was the original one for all humanity.
    • Jesus famously answer to the question “How long shall death prevail?” with: “As long as women bear children”.

Gospel of Truth

  • Gospel of Truth = a Gnostic Gospel, which actually lacks a proper name but is named after the very first three words of the text
    • more an homily than a Gospel, written in heavily poetic form.
    • probably written originally in Greek between 140 and 180 a.C.
    • possibly by Valentinus himself.
    • content starts with the cause of the creation of the world: ignorance. Jesus was sent by God to correct this, reuniting the aeons and humanity with God.
    • it describes ignorance as a nightmare, that prevents us from knowing God and attaining salvation.
    • there is no need for God to save humans as every person has inside the seed for salvation, through knowledge alone.
    • this “gospel” does not describe the life of Jesus by comes from teachings given by him in the 40 days after the resurrection.

Pistis Sophia

  • Pistis Sophia = a Gnostic text, from an original Coptic manuscript of 178 pages
    • discovered in 1773
    • probably written between the third and fourth century a.C.
    • Sophia would be an important feminine divinity in many Gnostic texts, possibly a feminine version of either Christ himself or the Holy Ghost
    • much of the content is in the form of questions from the Apostles to Jesus. Mary Magdalene is heavily feaured, appearing in a major role among the apostles.
    • Jesus remains 11 years after the resurrection to teach the apostles, the Virgin Mary, Mary Magdalene and Martha.
    • After these 11 years Jesus receives “higher garments” and teaches higher mysteries related to cosmology and other necessary knowledges to attain salvation.
    • 32 carnal desires are cited to be overcome to be saved.
    • Full text.

Second Treatise of the Great Seth

  • Second Treatise of the Great Seth = a Gnostic Gospel found among the Nag Hammadi library texts.
    • the Seth referenced in the title doesn’t appear in the content.
    • dated around the third century a.C.
    • the Seth of the title is the third son of Adam and Eve, the one initiated to gnostic mysteries.
    • Jesus was not crucified, Simon of Cyrene was mistaken for him and got crucified in his place.
    • Jesus is described as standing by the place of the crucifixion and “laughing at their ignorance”.
    • the text is written in the first person perspective of Jesus.
    • the text laughs at those believing that Jesus was crucified and to all the believers of the previous prophets (like Adam, Abraham, Isaac, Moses and so on).
    • the God of the Jews is not the true God but only the Demiurge.
    • Jesus is claimed to never have been a man but a pure docetistic spirit.
    • Jesus claimed a body of an human man and took it for his own use.

Apocryphon of John

  • Apocryphon of John = a gnostic Gospel, known to Irenaeus.
    • written before 180 a.C.
    • found in Egypt in 4 Coptic manuscripts, translated from the original Greek version.
    • it narrates a revelation of Jesus after the resurrection to John the Apostle.
    • the highest divine principle is named as the Monad.
    • a feminine divinity named Barbelo is produced by the Monad, after his thought. Barbelo is the first of a class of divinity, the Aeons.
    • Sophia, one of the Aeons, produces with a male consort the first of demonic entities named the Archons, Yaltabaoth, disrupting the harmony that reigned before.
    • Sophia repents though, and the Monad and the other Aeons help her to redeem the Archons. During this process, Adam is created.
    • The Garden of Eden is a false paradise, as the Tree of Life is only a part of the larger Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil.
    • Jesus reveals to have been him to have caused Adam to consume the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Within Adam there is the essence of Light and Eve is created in an attempt to extract this essence out of him.
    • Yaltabaoth keeps humanity in check by making them reproduce and inserting into them a counterfeit spirit. Through ignorance, humanity is kept away from the Aeons and the Monad, and subject to the Archons.

Apocalypse of Paul

  • Apocalypse of Paul = a Gospel narrating the vision of heaven and hell by the apostle Paul. Not to be confused with the unrelated text Coptic Apocalypse of Paul.
    • the original Greek version is lost.
    • dated around the fourth century a.C.
    • based off the Apocalypse of Peter but expanding on it.
    • Syriac, Amharic, Coptic and Georgian versions exists, along with an Ethiopian one which differs in making the Virgin Mary the one experiencing the vision.
    • pride is cited as the root of all evil.
    • the paradise is the land of milk and honey.
    • Paul obtains from God a rest for the damned on every Sunday.

First Apocalypse of James

  • First Apocalypse of James = a Gnostic apocalypse.
    • dated to the early third century a.C.
    • the text is a dialogue James the Just, named as the brother of Jesus, and Jesus. They are not biological brothers though, being born of different mothers and fathers.
    • James is subject to martyrdom by crucifixion. A few “passwords” are given to him before the martyrdom so he can ascend to the highest heaven, out of 72 in total, after death, without being blocked by the Demiurge.
    • James is the early head of the Church.
    • James is the most senior apostle.
    • Integral text.

Second Apocalypse of James

  • Second Apocalypse of James = a Gnostic Gospel describing the martyrdom of James the Just.
    • dated to the second century a.C.
    • the father of James is named Theudas, not Joseph. The mother is named Mary but it is not specified in the text if this is the same Virgin Mary or another Mary.
    • in contrast with the First Apocalypse of James, the text here explicitly say that James and Jesus share the same mother, although it is not stated that this mother is the same Mary.
    • Jesus and James share a kiss on the lips, in a probably metaphor for the passing of Gnosis between them.

Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius

  • Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius = a late Christian eschatological text.
    • written in Syriac in the seventh century a.C.
    • the work attempts to make sense of the recent Islamic conquests.
    • typical messianic elements of the tale of Gog and Magog, the rise of the Antichrist and the tribulations before the end of time are present.
    • another messianic element is added though, in the character of a messianic Roman emperor, Saviour of the christians against the army of Ishmael (the Islamic Empire).

Apocalypse of Peter

  • Apocalypse of Peter = an early Christian text with an apocalyptic tone.
    • mentioned in the Muratorian fragment, the oldest surviving list of New Testament books. It is reputed a true Gospel in the fragment but also stated that some authorities would not have it read in church.
    • dated to the second century a.C.
    • two versions exist, a Koine Greek and an Ethiopian one. This latter version has included later texts and diverges from the original considerably.
    • another version exists in Arabic, the Ru’ya Butrus.
    • the text is framed as a discourse between Jesus after the resurrection and the Apostle. A first vision of heaven and hell is granted to Peter.
    • a description of people in heaven (with milky white skin, curly hair and wearing shiny clothes) and of the torments given to the sinner in hell is given.
    • at the end of time every soul in hell will be pardoned thanks to the prayers of the souls in heaven but it is best if this remains a secret.
    • Integral text.

Early Christianity Chrolonogy

  • undated: St.Paul in one of his letters first spoke of the “Old Covenant” compared to the new
  • 330 a.C.: Neoplatonism is officially condemned
  • 325 a.C.: First Council of Nicaea. Arianism is repudiated, Christ is declared of the same substance of the Father, the original Nicene Creed is adopted, and established how to calculate the date of Easter.
  • 336 a.C.: Arius is restored to communion after having been condemned in the previous First Sinod of Tyre (335 a.C.)
  • 381 a.C.: First Council of Costantinople. repudiated Arianism, again, and Macedonianism/Pneumatochi, declared Christ “born of the Father before all time”, and revised the Nicene Creed.
  • 431 a.C.: Council of Ephesus. Repudiated Nestorianism, proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, repudiated Pelagianism, and reaffirmed the Nicene Creed. On the same year, the Church of the East (mostly Syria and Mesopotamia) declared its independence.
  • 449 a.C.: Second Council of Ephesus. Mostly restored a few figures once considered heretics. It is not recognized as an official council by Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestants.
  • 415 a.C.: Council of Chalcedon. Repudiated Monophysitism, adopted the Chalcedonian Creed, which includes the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ. This Council is the last explicitly recognized by the Anglicans and it is rejected by Oriental Orthodox churches.
  • 475 a.C.: Third Council of Ephesus. Basically repudiated the previous Council of Chalcedon, especially the Tome of Leo. It is only recognized by Oriental Orthodox churches.
  • 553 a.C.: Second Council of Costantinople. Repudiated the Three Chapters, and Origenism. It introduced the Theopaschite Formula to solve the debate on the double nature of Christ.
  • 680-681 a.C.: Third Council of Costantinople. Repudiated Monothelitism, the doctrine of one will of Christ, and Monoenergism, the doctrine of one energy of Christ.
  • 692 a.C.: Council of Trullo. It mostly debated on matters of discipline but was repudiated by most Western Churches.
  • 787: Second Council of Nicaea. Restored the veneration of icons, repudiating iconoclasm.

Late Christianity Chronology

  • 869-870: Fourth Council of Costantinople. It was called only to depose the current patriarch of Costantinople and restore the previous one. It is only recognized by Catholics.
  • 1123: First Council of the Lateran. Addressed the investment of bishops and the role of the Emperor in them.
  • 1139: Second Council of the Lateran. Reaffirmed the first of the Lateran, and prohibited clerical marriages.
  • 1179: Third Council of the Lateran. Restricted papal election to only the cardinals, prohibited simony, and introduced minimum age for ordination.
  • 1215: Fourth Council of the Lateran. Defined transubstantation, addressed papal primacy and clerical discipline.
  • 1245: First Council of Lyon. Mainly excommunicated Emperor Frederick II and instituted a levy to support the Holy Land.
  • 1274: Second Council of Lyon. Attempted a reunion with the Eastern churches, defined the teaching of the purgatory, approved Franciscan and Dominican orders, and procedures of the conclave.
  • 1311-1312: Council of Vienna. Disbanded the Knights Templar.
  • 1341-1351: Fifth Council of Costantinople. Affirmed the Hesychastic Theology, a contemplative monastic tradition that attained stillness through uninterrupted Jesus prayers. Only recognized by Eastern Orthodox churches.
  • 1409: Council of Pisa. Attempted to solve Western Schism of the Papacy but its outcome was repudiated at the Council of Constance later.
  • 1414-1418: Council of Constance. Resolved the Western Schism, condemned John Hus of the Hussites.
  • 1431-1445: Council of Basel, Ferrara, and Florence. Addressed reforms of the Church, attempted a reunion with Eastern churches.
  • 1512-1517: Fifth Council of the Lateran. Addressed mostly church reforms.
  • 1545-1563: Council of Trent. Condemned Protestantism, defined the role and canon of Scripture and the seven sacraments, started the Counter-Reformation.
  • 1642: Synod of Iasi. Reviewed and amended the Orthodox Confession. Only recognized by the Eastern Orthodox churches.
  • 1672: Synod of Jerusalem. The Eastern Church agreed on rejecting the Protestant Reform refuting the Confession of Lucaris, that Christ is present during the Eucharist, confirmed the canonicity of Old Testament books (refuting the claim of Protestants that didn’t accept them) and that the Holy Ghost proceeds from God only, not from both Father and Son. Only recognized by Eastern Orthodox churches.
  • 1869-1870: First Council of the Vatican. Defined Pope’s primacy in church governance, his infallibility, repudiated modern philosophies of Rationalism, Materialism, and Atheism, addressed the revelation, the interpretation of Scripture, and the relationship between faith and reason.
  • 1872: Synod of Costantinople. Addressed nationalisms in the unity of the Orthodox churches (and was recognized only by those).
  • 1962-1965: Second Council of the Vatican. Addressed pastoral and disciplinary issues, changing the liturgy, and the attitude towards Ecumenism.

Christology and Christ’s person differences

Once assumed that the person of Christ is both human and divine, there were stark differences in approach in the early Christianity. Some of the doctrines on this were:

  • Monophysitism (3rd-8th century): they believed that after incarnation, the human and divine nature of Christ were united in a single nature. Condemned by the Council of Chalcedon of 451
  • Miaphysitism: what Oriental Orthodox churces believe today, the person of Christ had divine and human nature united in a compound nature (physis)
  • Dyophysitism: Christ maintained two distinct natures, human and divine, after the incarnation. Articulated in the Council of Chalcedon, it is what believe in Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and Reformed Churches adherents
  • Monarchianism (2nd-3rd century a.C.): considered God as one, not separate nature as in the Trinity. Condemned as heresy by First Council of Costantinople in 381, there are still some adherents to this belief today
  • Docetism (3rd-4th century a.C.): believed that the human nature and form of Christ were semblance of reality, an illusion, and that only his divine nature was real. Rejected by the First Council of Nicea in 32
  • Monarchianism (2nd-3rd century a.C.): considered God as one, not separate nature as in the Trinity. Condemned as heresy by First Council of Costantinople in 381, there are still some adherents to this belief today
  • Docetism (3rd-4th century a.C.): believed that the human nature and form of Christ were semblance of reality, an illusion, and that only his divine nature was real. Rejected by the First Council of Nicea in 325. Widely considered heretics by most of today’s Churches, docetism had similarities with Marcionism
  • Arianism (4th century a.C.): viewed Christ’s divine nature as inferior to God’s, as having a beginning in time and different in substance, having been begotten and not ever-existing as the Father. Condemned by the First Council of Nicea in 325
  • Nestorianism (5th century a.C.): asserted that the human and divine natures of Christ were completely distinct. Condemned by the Council of Ephesus (431) it is still held as canon by the Church of the East (once in Persia and up to China, nowadays mostly the Assyrian Church)
  • Monothelitism (7th century a.C.): considered Christ to have distinct human and divine nature but one single will among them. Initially sponsored by the Byzantine Empire, it was later considered heresy by the Third Council of Constantinople in 680-681

Theological facts

  • Only John’s Apocalypse is supposed to be dictated by God directly. None of the other biblical texts claim so.
  • Justyn Martyr, 100-165 a.C., did not consider the Gospels as canon but only as a sort of “memorable facts” about the life of Christ
  • A doctrine of future life was first postulated in the West by the Orphics, then adopted by Greek philosophers and then caught by early Christian theologians.

Important figures

Origen of Alexandria

As an early Church Father (185-253 a.C.), he had later questionable ideas. For him, everything had a soul outside of the Trinity, even the sun and the stars. Souls of men came from elsewhere, already formed since the creation, as with Plato. And every soul will be eventually saved, even those of devils.

These theories were later rejected by the Church in the 6th century a.C.

Marcion of Sinope

Marcion was the founder of Marcionism. First to develop a New Testament canon, which included his own Gospel of Marcion. This text seems to be a revised gospel of Luke, with a lot of Judaism influenced removed.

Marcion preached that the God of Jesus was a new one, alien, separate from the one of the Old Testament.

Marcion was quickly declared heretic, and the Church was forced to create their own biblical canon in answer to Marcion’s.

Some of his ideas resurfaced in Middle Age with the Paulicians, which also were considered heretics.

Saint Augustine

While highly influential, he also held some later declared heretical positions. For instance, he held that angels may be both bad or good, while only devils were always bad. He also believed that we were all doomed after Adam’s sin, and only God could grant salvation. This was unrelated to how one would act during life, and only God knew why some were saved and others damned. Even infants would automatically go to hell, unless God intervened. Only those who were baptized could be saved, adults or infants.

Regarding sex, he claimed that Adam and Eve before the original sin could have had sex without lust, only with will, but after that sin we all lost that capability, and fell to the sin of lust.

These theories were held as orthodox for centuries, until the Counter-Reformation or later, when were abandoned by the Catholic Church.

Non-theological facts

Antisemitism

  • Gregory of Nyssa was one of the primary theologians of the early Church. He famously cursed the Jews in a sort of prayer, in mid 4th century a.C.
  • Elvira, in south of Spain, in 306 a.C. prohibited any relationship between its citizens and Jews
  • Cyril of Alexandria, venerated as Saint Cyril, was the patriarch of Alexandria in the early fifth century who supported pogroms and later expulsed Jews from the city. He had also a hand in the murder of the philosopher Hypatia, albeit the historians are still debating how important was his role.

Other facts

  • Ignatius of Antioch first used the greek word katholikos to describe the Church (2nd century a.C.). He also opposed the term to “heretic”, for the first time.
    • He is also responsible for the idea of a monarchic conception of the bishops, where each christian community should be ruled by a bishop.
  • At the beginning of the 3rd century a.C. the bishop of Rome Hippolitus denounced at least 32 christian sects.
  • Porphyry was the author of a series of 15 books Against the Christians. No copy of any remain today, only citations from other writers. He was a neoplatonic thinker.
  • The principle of not reciprocating evil present in the Sermon of the Mount, was already stated by Socrates as: We ought not to retaliate evile for evil to any one, whatever evil we may have suffered from him
  • The Therapeautae was a Christian sect in Alexandria from 1st century a.C. Their practices were similar to Theravada Buddhism and their name may have been an adaption to Greek of the pali word Theravada.
  • Pope Liberius in 354 a.C. first associated the winter solstice and roman celebration of Brumalia with the date of birth of Jesus
  • The Cathari were dualists, believing in a God and a Demiurge. Like the Gnostics, they believed the Demiurge to be the God of the Old Testament while the true, and only good one, God was of the New.
  • The Bogomiles were a fusion of Manichaeans and Paulicians. They rejected infant baptism, purgatory, the invocation of saints, and the whole Trinity.